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| Abraham Sacrificing Isaac, Circa 1650, by Laurent de La Hire |
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Leningrad Codex cover page, Circa 1010 CE, is written by Shmuel ben Ya'akov and aside from the Dead Sea Scrolls, its Masoretic text is the oldest known Tanakh.
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I. The Tanakh, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Origins of the Hebrew Bible:
The Tanakh, the Jewish Bible, derives its name from an acronym formed from its three principal divisions: Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). Jewish tradition holds that these thirty-nine books comprise the revealed word of God transmitted to humanity. For centuries, scholars have relied primarily upon two ancient textual traditions to reconstruct the earliest form of the Hebrew Scriptures: the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint.
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text preserved and standardized by Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes. The oldest complete surviving manuscript of this tradition is the Leningrad Codex, copied in Cairo in 1009 C.E. Although the Aleppo Codex is older, it survives only in fragmentary form. Consequently, the Leningrad Codex remains the earliest complete witness to the Tiberian Masoretic tradition.
The Septuagint is a Greek translation of the Torah produced by the Jewish community of Alexandria during the third century B.C.E. The remaining books of the Hebrew Bible were translated over the following century. According to tradition, more than seventy Jewish scholars independently produced identical Greek translations of the Torah, giving rise to the name "Septuagint" (Latin for seventy).
Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the twentieth century, the oldest known Hebrew biblical manuscripts were Masoretic texts dating to approximately the tenth century C.E. The Dead Sea Scrolls dramatically altered that picture by pushing the documentary evidence for the Hebrew Bible back more than one thousand years. Dating primarily from the third century B.C.E. through the first century C.E., the scrolls constitute the oldest surviving manuscripts of many books of the Hebrew Bible.
The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls also revealed significant textual variations among ancient biblical manuscripts. Some scrolls closely resemble the later Masoretic Text, while others align more closely with the Septuagint. Still others preserve unique readings not found in either tradition. These findings demonstrate that multiple textual traditions of the Hebrew Scriptures circulated simultaneously during the Second Temple period.
Traditional Judaism regards the Masoretic Text as the authoritative and normative version of Scripture. Yet the Dead Sea Scrolls reveal that the textual history of the Hebrew Bible was more diverse than previously understood. Rather than a single, fixed text descending unchanged through history, the evidence suggests that several respected textual traditions coexisted for centuries before the Masoretic Text ultimately became dominant.
Among the leading scholars in this field is Eugene Ulrich, Professor Emeritus of Hebrew Scripture and Theology at the University of Notre Dame and chief editor of the biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls. After decades of research, Ulrich concluded that multiple editions of numerous biblical books circulated simultaneously in antiquity and were all regarded as sacred Scripture. According to his findings, books such as Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Psalms, and Song of Solomon existed in more than one recognized textual form.
If Ulrich's conclusions are correct, the implications are profound. Rather than a single textual tradition standing alone, the evidence suggests a dynamic process of transmission, preservation, and development within the biblical tradition. This raises important questions concerning which textual witnesses most closely reflect the earliest recoverable forms of the Hebrew Scriptures.
The Dead Sea Scrolls did not prove the Masoretic Text wrong. Rather, they demonstrated that the textual history of the Hebrew Bible is considerably more complex than scholars once believed. Together, the Masoretic Text, the Septuagint, and the Dead Sea Scrolls provide an unprecedented window into the development and preservation of one of the world's most influential bodies of religious literature.
It is also important to recognize the substantial chronological gap between the events described in the Hebrew Bible and the earliest surviving manuscripts. According to traditional biblical chronology, major narratives such as Noah's Flood, Abraham's covenant, the Exodus, the reign of David, and the construction of Solomon's Temple occurred many centuries before the earliest surviving biblical manuscripts. No known manuscript dates to the period traditionally associated with Moses.
The earliest biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are themselves copies of much older traditions. Their existence demonstrates that biblical texts were already being transmitted, copied, and preserved centuries before the Common Era. However, the absence of contemporary manuscripts means that the earliest recoverable textual evidence rests upon a long process of oral transmission, written preservation, and scribal copying.
Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls are written in Paleo-Hebrew script, an ancient form of Hebrew writing that predates the square Aramaic script used in later Jewish manuscripts. While some scholars maintain that earlier forms of the Hebrew language may have existed during the period traditionally associated with Moses, no manuscripts from that era have survived. Consequently, the original language, form, and authorship of any Mosaic writings remain subjects of scholarly debate.
Whether one approaches the Hebrew Bible from a religious, historical, or literary perspective, the Dead Sea Scrolls have transformed our understanding of its transmission. Their discovery has not resolved every question concerning the origins of Scripture, but it has revealed a far richer and more complex textual history than scholars could have imagined before their discovery in 1947.
II. The Christian Bible and the Earliest Christian Manuscripts
Christians regard both the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament) and the New Testament as sacred scripture. Together they form the Christian Bible, a collection of writings believed to preserve God's revelation to humanity through the prophets, Jesus Christ, and the Apostles.
The oldest surviving near-complete manuscripts of the Christian Bible are four great Greek uncial codices written on fine vellum between the fourth and fifth centuries C.E., approximately 325 to 450 years after the birth of Jesus:
Codex Vaticanus (ca. 325–350 C.E.)
Codex Sinaiticus (ca. 330–360 C.E.)
Codex Alexandrinus (ca. 400–440 C.E.)
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (ca. 450 C.E.)
These codices preserve most or all of the Old and New Testaments and provide the principal foundation for modern textual criticism of the Christian Bible. Although broadly similar, they contain numerous differences in wording, book order, textual divisions, and scribal conventions, reflecting the evolving transmission of Christian scripture during its formative centuries.
Among the most significant discoveries relating to the early Christian text are the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, uncovered in the late nineteenth century at an ancient rubbish mound near Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. Dating from the first through sixth centuries C.E., the collection contains some of the earliest surviving Christian manuscripts known.
Notable among these are Papyrus 90, preserving portions of John 19:1–7, and Papyrus 104, containing fragments of Matthew 21:34–37. Both are written in Greek and are generally dated paleographically to the late second or early third century C.E., making them among the earliest surviving witnesses to the New Testament text.
These manuscripts highlight an important feature of early Christianity: although Jesus and his earliest followers likely spoke Aramaic, and Jesus would have been familiar with Hebrew scripture, the earliest surviving New Testament manuscripts are written in Greek, the common literary and commercial language of the eastern Roman Empire.
The Oxyrhynchus discoveries also included three Greek fragments of the Gospel of Thomas (Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1, 654, and 655), demonstrating that alternative Christian traditions circulated alongside the writings that eventually formed the New Testament canon.
Further evidence of Christianity's early diversity emerged in 1945 with the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library near Nag Hammadi, Egypt. Consisting of thirteen fourth-century Coptic codices containing more than fifty texts, the collection preserves a wide range of early Christian and Gnostic writings, including the only complete surviving copy of the Gospel of Thomas.
Unlike the canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, the Gospel of Thomas does not recount the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Instead, it presents a collection of sayings attributed to Jesus, many of which emphasize personal spiritual insight and self-knowledge. Other Nag Hammadi texts, such as the Apocryphon of John, offer alternative accounts of creation, salvation, and divine revelation that differ substantially from orthodox Christian theology.
Although these writings provide valuable insight into the beliefs of various early Christian communities, they were not accepted into the biblical canon and are regarded by Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches as part of the New Testament Apocrypha or related non-canonical literature.
Another important source for the historical study of early Christianity is the Antiquities of the Jews, written by the Romano-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus around 93–94 C.E. The work contains references to John the Baptist and two passages referring to Jesus, making it one of the earliest non-Christian sources to mention figures central to the New Testament narrative. However, the earliest surviving complete manuscript of Josephus' work dates from the eleventh century, reminding scholars that even many of the most important historical sources survive only through copies produced centuries after the events they describe.
Taken together, the great biblical codices, the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the Nag Hammadi Library, and the writings of Josephus provide critical evidence for understanding the transmission, preservation, and diversity of early Christian literature. They reveal a religious movement whose texts evolved through centuries of copying, translation, debate, and canonization before assuming the form recognized by most Christians today.
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Codex Vaticanus, circa 325–350 C.E. One of the oldest and most important surviving manuscripts of the Christian Bible, Codex Vaticanus was copied on fine vellum and written in elegant Greek uncial script. Preserved for centuries in the Vatican Library, the codex contains most of the Old and New Testaments and serves as one of the principal witnesses to the earliest recoverable text of Christian scripture. This page displays the conclusion of the Gospel of Luke and the beginning of the Gospel of John. Produced approximately three centuries after the lifetime of Jesus, Codex Vaticanus predates nearly all other complete biblical manuscripts and remains a cornerstone of modern biblical scholarship and textual criticism. Its careful handwriting, absence of decorative embellishments, and archaic textual features suggest that it was copied from even earlier manuscript traditions now lost to history. |
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In the late nineteenth century, archaeologists excavating an ancient rubbish mound near Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, uncovered one of the most important collections of ancient manuscripts ever discovered. Known as the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, the cache contains hundreds of thousands of documents dating from the first through sixth centuries C.E., providing an unparalleled window into the religious, literary, and daily life of the Greco-Roman world.
Among the discoveries were some of the earliest surviving fragments of the Christian New Testament, including Papyrus 90, containing John 19:1–7 in Greek and paleographically dated to the late second century, and Papyrus 104, preserving Matthew 21:34–37 in Greek and likewise dated to the late second century.
Also recovered at Oxyrhynchus were three important Greek manuscripts of the Gospel of Thomas, Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1, 654, and 655, all dated to the late second or early third century. These fragments provided the first evidence of the Gospel of Thomas centuries before the discovery of the complete Coptic text among the Nag Hammadi codices in 1945, confirming that this collection of Jesus' sayings circulated widely within early Christian communities.
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Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1 is one of three Greek manuscript fragments of the Gospel of Thomas discovered at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, along with Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 654 and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 655. Paleographically dated to the late second or early third century C.E., these fragments represent the earliest known witnesses to the Gospel of Thomas and provided the first evidence of this non-canonical collection of Jesus' sayings centuries before the discovery of the complete Coptic text at Nag Hammadi in 1945. |
The compilation of the Qur'an forms one of the most important chapters in early Islamic history. According to Islamic tradition, the revelation of the Qur'an began in 610 C.E. when the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) appeared to the Prophet Muhammad in the Cave of Hira near Mecca and recited the opening verses of Surah al-'Alaq ("The Clot"). Muslims believe that over the next twenty-two years Muhammad continued to receive divine revelations until shortly before his death in 632 C.E.
Both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars agree that the Qur'an originated during Muhammad's lifetime, although they differ regarding the precise process by which the revelations were collected and compiled. Islamic tradition holds that portions of the Qur'an were memorized by Muhammad's followers and recorded on parchment, leather, bone, and other writing materials. Following Muhammad's death, the first caliph, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq (r. 632–634 C.E.), is traditionally credited with initiating the first formal collection of the revelations.
Muslim sources further maintain that during the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656 C.E.), an official recension of the Qur'an was prepared and distributed throughout the expanding Islamic world. To preserve textual uniformity, Uthman reportedly ordered competing or variant copies to be destroyed. The resulting text became the standard version of the Qur'an used throughout the Islamic community and remains the foundation of all modern Qur'anic manuscripts.
Unlike the textual histories of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament, the earliest surviving Qur'anic manuscripts date remarkably close to the lifetime of the faith's founder. Fragments such as the Birmingham Qur'an Manuscript, the Sana'a Manuscripts, and portions of the Topkapi and Samarkand codices have been dated to the seventh century C.E., within decades of Muhammad's death and, in some cases, potentially overlapping with the lives of his earliest followers.
For Muslims, this proximity between the revelation and the earliest surviving manuscripts is viewed as evidence of the Qur'an's faithful preservation. For historians and textual scholars, these manuscripts provide an unusually early documentary record when compared with many other ancient religious texts. As a result, the Qur'an occupies a unique position among the scriptures of the Abrahamic faiths, possessing manuscript evidence that dates to within a generation of the events traditionally associated with its origin.
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Pictured above is the oldest known Qur'an that is alleged to be from the 7th century, being an original edition of the third caliph Uthman written only 30 years after the death of Muhammad. The 7th century date, however, is disputed since it is written in kufic. This qur'an is located in the small Telyashayakh mosque in Tashkent, Uzbek. - Photo by Wiggum |
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One of the Qur'an fragments found in 1972 in the loft of the Great Mosque in Sanaa, Yemen, and photographed by Doctor Gerd R. Puin who was in charge of the project between 1981 and 1985. The light brown text are from the time of Muhammad, while the darker text is from the 8th Century. The writings are from verses 3 to 10 of Sura 20 (Taha). |
Among the earliest surviving Qur'anic manuscripts is the Samarkand Qur'an, preserved today in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Islamic tradition once associated the manuscript directly with the caliph Uthman ibn Affan, but modern paleographic analysis generally dates it to the eighth or ninth century C.E. The manuscript is written in an early Kufic script, which developed after the lifetime of Muhammad and the first generation of Muslims. Although no longer regarded as a contemporary copy from Uthman's era, the Samarkand Qur'an remains one of the oldest and most important surviving Qur'anic manuscripts.
An even more significant discovery occurred in 1972 during restoration work at the Great Mosque of Sana'a in Yemen. Workers uncovered thousands of manuscript fragments, including what has become known as the Sana'a Palimpsest. Written on reused parchment, the manuscript contains two layers of text: an upper text that largely conforms to the standard Uthmanic Qur'an and an earlier lower text containing numerous textual variants.
Radiocarbon analysis of the parchment used for the lower manuscript has produced dates placing the material within the seventh century C.E., potentially within a few decades of Muhammad's death in 632. As a result, the Sana'a manuscripts represent some of the earliest surviving documentary evidence for the Qur'anic text and provide scholars with a rare glimpse into the formative stages of the Qur'an's transmission.
The textual variants found in the lower Sana'a text have generated considerable scholarly interest. While most differences involve spelling, word order, or minor textual variations, they demonstrate that the process of preserving and standardizing the Qur'anic text was more complex than once assumed. Nevertheless, the overwhelming majority of the text corresponds closely to the Qur'an known today, reinforcing the remarkable continuity of the Islamic scriptural tradition.
Like the Dead Sea Scrolls for Judaism and the Oxyrhynchus and early codex manuscripts for Christianity, the Sana'a discoveries provide important evidence for understanding how sacred texts were transmitted, copied, and preserved. Rather than replacing the traditional text, these manuscripts offer scholars valuable insight into the historical development of one of the world's most influential religious works.
Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, traces its spiritual heritage to Abraham. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad's lineage descends through Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. The events associated with Abraham are traditionally placed around the early second millennium B.C.E., nearly two thousand years before the earliest surviving biblical manuscripts and more than two and a half millennia before the earliest surviving Qur'anic manuscripts. Consequently, as with the foundational narratives of Judaism and Christianity, historians must distinguish between the period in which the events are believed to have occurred and the much later dates of the surviving manuscript evidence that preserves those traditions.
IV. The Book of Mormon and the Latter-day Saint Tradition
The most recent major scripture within the Abrahamic tradition is the Book of Mormon, a sacred text of the Latter-day Saint movement, whose various denominations collectively claim more than fifteen million adherents worldwide. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints regard the Book of Mormon as a companion scripture to the Bible and as another testament of Jesus Christ.
First published in March 1830 by Joseph Smith Jr. under the title The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi, the work recounts the history and religious teachings of several ancient peoples whom the text states migrated from the Near East to the Americas. According to the narrative, these records span a period from approximately 2200 B.C.E. to 421 C.E.
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A page from the Joseph Smith's original Book of Mormon manuscript, covering 1 Nephi 4:38-5:14 |
Joseph Smith taught that the Book of Mormon was translated from a collection of engraved gold plates that had been compiled and preserved by successive prophets. According to his account, the final custodian of the record was a prophet named Moroni, who buried the plates in a hill in what is now western New York during the fifth century C.E. Smith further stated that Moroni later appeared to him as an angel and revealed the location of the plates in 1827, instructing him to translate the record as part of the restoration of Christ's church in the latter days.
According to both Smith's testimony and the Book of Mormon itself, the plates were inscribed in characters described as "reformed Egyptian." The translated text presents a sweeping religious history of peoples living in the ancient Americas and includes extensive teachings concerning faith, repentance, revelation, the mission of Jesus Christ, the Fall of Adam and Eve, the Atonement, resurrection, judgment, and the establishment of Christ's church.
The central event of the Book of Mormon is the appearance of the resurrected Jesus Christ to the peoples of the Americas shortly after His resurrection in Jerusalem. For Latter-day Saints, this event constitutes powerful evidence of Christ's universal mission and forms one of the book's most distinctive theological teachings.
Unlike the manuscript traditions of the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, and the Qur'an, the original source material from which the Book of Mormon was translated is not available for scholarly examination. Joseph Smith taught that after the translation was completed, the gold plates were returned to the Angel Moroni. As a result, historians and scholars must rely upon the published text, eyewitness statements from those who reported seeing the plates, and contemporary historical documents when evaluating the origins and transmission of the Book of Mormon.
Whether viewed as sacred scripture, historical narrative, or religious literature, the Book of Mormon occupies a unique place in the history of Abrahamic faiths as the most recent major work claiming divine revelation and prophetic authority.
Major Trends in American Religion (2025) - The most authoritative recent source is the 2023–24 Religious Landscape Study by the Pew Research Center, released in February 2025. It surveyed more than 36,000 Americans and is the largest study of U.S. religion conducted since 2014.
1. Christianity's Long Decline Has Slowed
For nearly two decades, Christianity steadily declined in the United States:
| Year | Christian |
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| 2007 | 78% |
| 2014 | 71% |
| 2023–24 | 62% |
However, Pew concludes that the decline appears to have slowed substantially and may have temporarily leveled off, with Christian identification remaining between 60% and 64% since 2019.
2. The Rise of the "Nones" Has Also Slowed
The most dramatic religious shift of the past generation has been the growth of Americans with no religious affiliation:
| Year | Religious "Nones" |
|---|---|
| 2007 | 16% |
| 2014 | 23% |
| 2023–24 | 29% |
Pew reports that this category now appears to have plateaued near 29%. The group includes:
- 19% "nothing in particular"
- 6% agnostic
- 5% atheist
Collectively, the religiously unaffiliated are now larger than any single Christian denomination.
3. Christianity Remains America's Majority Religion
Current Pew estimates:
| Religious Affiliation | Share of U.S. Adults |
|---|---|
| Christian | 62% |
| Religiously Unaffiliated | 29% |
| Non-Christian Religions | 7% |
4. Protestantism Continues to Shrink
Since 2007:
| Group | 2007 | 2023–24 |
|---|---|---|
| Evangelical Protestant | 26% | 23% |
| Mainline Protestant | 18% | 11% |
| Historically Black Protestant | 7% | 5% |
Catholics have also declined modestly over the same period, although not as sharply as many Protestant groups.
5. Non-Christian Faiths Continue Slow Growth
The fastest-growing religious communities are primarily the result of immigration and higher birth rates.
Approximate national percentages:
| Religion | Share |
|---|---|
| Judaism | 2% |
| Islam | 1% |
| Buddhism | 1% |
| Hinduism | 1% |
| Other Faiths | 2% |
Combined, non-Christian religions account for approximately 7% of Americans.
6. Generational Replacement Is Driving Change
Perhaps the most important finding is the enormous age gap.
Among Americans aged 18–29:
- 45% identify as Christian
- 44% have no religious affiliation
Among older Americans, Christianity remains dominant. Pew concludes that the future of American religion will largely depend on whether younger adults become more religious as they age or maintain their current patterns.
7. Religious Switching Is Reshaping the Landscape
Pew found that: 35% of Americans have changed religious affiliation since childhood.
Most movement is away from Christianity and toward no religious affiliation, although some movement occurs in the opposite direction.
The Larger Historical Picture
The United States remains one of the most religious nations in the developed world, but it is substantially less Christian than it was a generation ago. The most important trend is not the rise of another religion, but the growth of Americans who identify with no religion at all. At the same time, the dramatic secularization seen between 2007 and 2019 appears to have slowed, creating what may be a new equilibrium:
- Christianity: ~62%
- Religiously unaffiliated: ~29%
- Other religions: ~7%
Whether this stabilization represents a temporary pause or a lasting plateau remains one of the central questions facing religion scholars today.
One particularly striking statistic is that while the three great Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) still account for roughly two-thirds of Americans, nearly one-third now claim no religious affiliation, an unprecedented development in U.S. history.
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| Abrahamism's three major religions are Judaism, Christian, and Islam. |
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| Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur by Maurycy Gottlieb (1856–1879), Circa 1878 |
I. Judaism
Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people, who trace their covenantal heritage through Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Israel). It is the oldest of the major Abrahamic faiths and is founded upon belief in one indivisible God who revealed His law and teachings to the people of Israel. The central sacred texts of Judaism are the Torah, the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), and the extensive body of rabbinic literature that includes the Mishnah and Talmud.
While Judaism has existed for more than three millennia, the modern era witnessed the development of several major religious movements, each offering a different approach to Jewish law, tradition, and modern society. The three largest branches today are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism (Masorti Judaism), and Reform Judaism.
Orthodox Judaism maintains that both the Written Torah and the Oral Torah are divinely inspired and that Jewish law (Halakha) remains binding. Orthodox Jews generally adhere closely to the legal and ethical traditions preserved in the Talmud and later rabbinic writings. The movement encompasses a broad spectrum of communities, ranging from Modern Orthodox Jews, who actively engage with contemporary society, to Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox) groups, who emphasize strict observance and separation from secular influences. Orthodox Judaism represents the continuation of the mainstream Jewish tradition that existed prior to the emergence of modern denominational movements in the nineteenth century.
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, emerged during the nineteenth century as a middle path between Orthodoxy and Reform. Rooted in the Positive-Historical School of Germany, Conservative Judaism seeks to preserve Jewish tradition and observance while recognizing the historical development of Jewish law and practice. Adherents generally view Jewish law as authoritative but capable of measured adaptation in response to changing historical circumstances.
Reform Judaism arose in nineteenth-century Europe as an effort to harmonize Jewish religious life with modern culture and intellectual thought. Reform Jews generally emphasize the ethical teachings of Judaism over strict adherence to ritual law and regard many traditional practices as matters of personal choice rather than religious obligation. The movement views Judaism as an evolving religious tradition whose beliefs and practices may be reinterpreted to address the needs of contemporary life.
Despite their theological and practical differences, all three movements share a common foundation in the covenantal traditions of the Hebrew Bible and the enduring belief in the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Together they represent the principal expressions of modern Judaism and the diverse ways in which Jewish communities have sought to preserve their ancient faith in the modern world.
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| Gaudenzio Ferrari (1475–1546) painting: Stories of life and passion of Christ, fresco, 1513, Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Varallo Sesia, Italy. IMAGES: Top row: Annunciation, Nativity, Visit of the Three Magi, Flight to Egypt, Baptism of Christ, Raising of Lazarus , Entry to Jerusalem, Last Supper. Middle row: Washing of feet, Agony in the Garden, Arrest of Christ, Trial before the Sanhedrin, Trial before Pilate, Flagellation. Bottom row: Ecce homo, Carrying the cross, Christ falls, Crucifixion, Deposition from the cross, Harrowing of Hell, Resurrection. |
II. Christianity
Christianity originated in the first century C.E. as a movement within Judaism centered on the teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Christians believe Jesus is the Messiah (Christ) and, in most traditions, the divine Son of God. Over time, Christianity emerged as a distinct religion and became the world's largest faith, with approximately 2.4 billion adherents.
The Christian Bible consists of the Old Testament, largely derived from the Hebrew Scriptures, and the New Testament, which records the life and teachings of Jesus, the acts of the Apostles, and the writings of early Christian leaders. Most Christians regard the Bible as divinely inspired scripture, while Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians also accord authority to Sacred Tradition.
Over two millennia, Christianity developed into three principal branches: Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism, each preserving a common belief in Jesus Christ while differing in matters of doctrine, church authority, worship, and practice.
Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian tradition, comprising approximately 1.4 billion members worldwide. It is led by the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, whom Catholics regard as the successor of Saint Peter. Catholic theology emphasizes apostolic succession, the seven sacraments, and the central role of the Eucharist, in which the bread and wine of Communion are believed to become the body and blood of Christ through the doctrine of transubstantiation. Catholicism is Trinitarian, affirming one God existing eternally as three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
Eastern Orthodoxy is the second-largest historic branch of Christianity, with approximately 220–300 million adherents concentrated primarily in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Middle East, and parts of Africa. The Orthodox Church views itself as the continuation of the ancient apostolic church and preserves traditions rooted in the early Christian centuries. Organized as a communion of self-governing churches, Orthodoxy emphasizes liturgical worship, apostolic succession, the sacraments, and the process of spiritual transformation known as theosis, through which believers seek union with God.
Protestantism emerged during the sixteenth-century Reformation, beginning with the challenges to Catholic authority advanced by reformers such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others. Protestants generally reject papal authority and emphasize the Bible as the primary source of religious authority. Many Protestant traditions teach justification by faith and the priesthood of all believers, although Protestantism encompasses a wide variety of denominations with differing beliefs and practices. Today, Protestantism includes thousands of churches and denominations throughout the world.
Despite their differences, Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Protestants share a common foundation in the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, belief in the God of Abraham, and acceptance of the New Testament as sacred scripture. Together they represent the principal expressions of Christianity and account for nearly one-third of the world's population.
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| A vellum illustration from the book Jami' al-Tawarikh of Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the Angel Gabriel, by Rashid al-Din, published in Tabriz, Persia, 1307 CE. The book is now in the collection of the Edinburgh University Library, Scotland. |
III. Islam
Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula during the seventh century C.E. and is founded upon belief in one indivisible God (Allah) and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, whom Muslims regard as the final prophet in a line that includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel and preserved as Islam's supreme religious authority.
Today, Islam is the world's second-largest religion, with approximately two billion adherents. In addition to the Qur'an, Muslims look to the Hadith—collections of Muhammad's sayings and actions—and centuries of legal and theological scholarship for guidance in matters of faith and practice.
Following the death of Muhammad in 632 C.E., disagreements regarding leadership of the Muslim community led to the emergence of Islam's two principal branches: Sunni Islam and Shi'a Islam. While both share the same Qur'an, core beliefs, and religious practices, they differ primarily in their understanding of religious authority and succession.
Sunni Islam is the largest branch, representing approximately 85–90 percent of the world's Muslims. Sunnis maintain that leadership of the Muslim community properly passed to Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad and the first caliph. Sunni religious practice is guided by the Qur'an, the Hadith, scholarly consensus, and established schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Although diverse in culture and legal interpretation, Sunni Muslims share a common commitment to the traditions (Sunnah) of Muhammad as the model for Islamic life.
Shi'a Islam constitutes the second-largest branch of Islam, accounting for approximately 10–15 percent of Muslims worldwide. Shi'a Muslims believe that leadership of the Muslim community was divinely entrusted to Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and subsequently to a line of Imams descended from Muhammad's family (Ahl al-Bayt). While sharing many beliefs and practices with Sunni Islam, Shi'a traditions place greater emphasis on the spiritual authority of the Imams and their role as guardians and interpreters of the faith.
Over time, Shi'a Islam developed several major branches, the largest being the Twelvers, followed by the Ismailis and Zaidis. Twelver Shi'ism is the dominant form of Islam in Iran and is also widely practiced in Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain, and other parts of the Middle East.
In addition to Sunni and Shi'a Islam, several smaller religious traditions trace their origins to the Islamic world. Among the most notable are the Bahá'à Faith, which emerged in nineteenth-century Persia and teaches the unity of all religions and humanity, and the Druze faith, a distinctive monotheistic tradition that developed from Ismaili Islam in the eleventh century.
Despite differences in theology, law, and religious authority, all major branches of Islam share belief in one God, the prophethood of Muhammad, the divine authority of the Qur'an, and a spiritual lineage that traces back through Abraham. Together they constitute one of the three great Abrahamic faiths and represent roughly one-quarter of the world's population.
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| Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva seated on lotuses with their consorts, Saraswati, Lakshmi and Paravati respectively. circa 1770, from Guler, India. The three greatest Hindu deities are shown here together with their consorts. They are sometimes regarded as a trinity, who together represent aspects of the supreme godhead. The four-headed Brahma, holding copies of the oldest Indian sacred scriptures, the Vedas, together with his consort Saraswati, symbolises the power of creation. Next to him the blue Vishnu, with his consort Lakshmi, represents the energy that upholds and preserves creation. To their right Shiva, with his wife Parvati, embodies the power of destruction. All three divine couples sit on lotus flowers, which are one of the most ancient Indian symbols of purity and spiritual power. This painting may have been made for the enjoyment of a local nobleman or ruler and was probably the work of local artists in north-west India. |
V. Dharmic and East Asian Religious Traditions
While the Abrahamic faiths trace their origins to the Middle East and the figure of Abraham, many of the world's other major religious traditions arose independently in Asia and developed distinct understandings of the divine, human existence, and the path to spiritual fulfillment.
The Dharmic religions originated on the Indian subcontinent and include Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Although each possesses unique beliefs, scriptures, and practices, they share certain philosophical concepts that emerged from the ancient religious culture of India, including dharma (moral duty and cosmic order), karma (the consequences of actions), and rebirth or reincarnation. Together, these faiths account for more than 1.8 billion adherents worldwide.
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| Song Dynasty painting illustrating the theme "Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are one". This Litang style painting depicts Taoist Lu Xiujing (left), official Tao Yuanming (right) and Buddhist monk Huiyuan (center, founder of Pure Land) by the Tiger stream. The stream borders a zone infested by tigers that they just crossed without fear, engrossed as they were in their discussion. Realising what they just did, they laugh together, hence the name of the picture,Three laughing men by the Tiger stream. |
Hinduism, the largest of the Dharmic religions, encompasses a diverse collection of beliefs, scriptures, and traditions centered on the pursuit of spiritual liberation (moksha) and the relationship between the individual soul and ultimate reality. Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama in the sixth century B.C.E., teaches a path toward enlightenment through ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom. Jainism emphasizes nonviolence (ahimsa), self-discipline, and spiritual purification, while Sikhism, founded in the Punjab region during the fifteenth century C.E., teaches devotion to one God, equality of all people, and service to humanity.
Among the great religious traditions of East Asia is Taoism (Daoism), a philosophical, ethical, and religious tradition that originated in ancient China. Taoism is traditionally associated with the teachings of Laozi and the classic text known as the Tao Te Ching. Central to Taoist thought is the concept of the Tao (Dao), often translated as "the Way," "the Path," or "the Principle." The Tao is understood as the fundamental source, pattern, and sustaining force of the universe.
Taoist philosophy emphasizes living in harmony with the natural order through simplicity, humility, spontaneity, and balance. Because the Tao transcends ordinary human language and understanding, the opening line of the Tao Te Ching famously declares: "The Tao that can be spoken is not the eternal Tao." Over the centuries, Taoism evolved from a philosophical tradition into a complex religious system that incorporates meditation, ritual, ethical teachings, and beliefs concerning health, longevity, and spiritual cultivation.
Together, the Dharmic and East Asian traditions represent some of humanity's oldest and most influential religious and philosophical systems, shaping the spiritual lives of billions of people across Asia and throughout the world.
